The Evolution of Home: English Interiors for a New Era

Product Information

Tavaré, Simon; Marshall, Charles R.; Will, Oliver; etal. (April 18, 2002). "Using the fossil record to estimate the age of the last common ancestor of extant primates". Nature. 416 (6882): 726–729. Bibcode: 2002Natur.416..726T. doi: 10.1038/416726a. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 11961552. S2CID 4368374. a b Yong, Ed (July 2011). "Mosaic humans, the hybrid species". New Scientist. 211 (2823): 34–38. Bibcode: 2011NewSc.211...34Y. doi: 10.1016/S0262-4079(11)61839-3.

The shortening of the pelvis and smaller birth canal evolved as a requirement for bipedalism and had significant effects on the process of human birth, which is much more difficult in modern humans than in other primates. During human birth, because of the variation in size of the pelvic region, the fetal head must be in a transverse position (compared to the mother) during entry into the birth canal and rotate about 90 degrees upon exit. [129] The smaller birth canal became a limiting factor to brain size increases in early humans and prompted a shorter gestation period leading to the relative immaturity of human offspring, who are unable to walk much before 12 months and have greater neoteny, compared to other primates, who are mobile at a much earlier age. [122] The increased brain growth after birth and the increased dependency of children on mothers had a major effect upon the female reproductive cycle, [130] and the more frequent appearance of alloparenting in humans when compared with other hominids. [131] Delayed human sexual maturity also led to the evolution of menopause with one explanation, the grandmother hypothesis, providing that elderly women could better pass on their genes by taking care of their daughter's offspring, as compared to having more children of their own. [132] [133] Encephalization [ edit ] Skulls of successive (or near-successive, depending on the source) human evolutionary ancestors, [c] up until 'modern' Homo sapiens In February 2006 a fossil, the Gawis cranium, was found which might possibly be a species intermediate between H.erectus and H.sapiens or one of many evolutionary dead ends. The skull from Gawis, Ethiopia, is believed to be 500,000–250,000 years old. Only summary details are known, and the finders have not yet released a peer-reviewed study. Gawis man's facial features suggest its being either an intermediate species or an example of a "Bodo man" female. [76] a b Clark, G.; Henneberg, M. (June 2015). "The life history of Ardipithecus ramidus: a heterochronic model of sexual and social maturation". Anthropological Review. 78 (2): 109–132. doi: 10.1515/anre-2015-0009. S2CID 54900467.Anthropologists describe modern human behavior to include cultural and behavioral traits such as specialization of tools, use of jewellery and images (such as cave drawings), organization of living space, rituals (such as grave gifts), specialized hunting techniques, exploration of less hospitable geographical areas, and barter trade networks, as well as more general traits such as language and complex symbolic thinking. Debate continues as to whether a "revolution" led to modern humans ("big bang of human consciousness"), or whether the evolution was more gradual. [47] Homo sapiens is the only extant species of its genus, Homo. While some (extinct) Homo species might have been ancestors of Homo sapiens, many, perhaps most, were likely "cousins", having speciated away from the ancestral hominin line. [48] [49] There is yet no consensus as to which of these groups should be considered a separate species and which should be a subspecies; this may be due to the dearth of fossils or to the slight differences used to classify species in the genus Homo. [49] The Sahara pump theory (describing an occasionally passable "wet" Sahara desert) provides one possible explanation of the early variation in the genus Homo. Main articles: Archaic humans, Early modern human, Archaic human admixture with modern humans, and Human §Evolution Reconstruction of early Homo sapiens from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco c. 315 000 years BP van den Bergh GD, Kaifu Y, Kurniawan I, Kono RT, Brumm A, Setiyabudi E, Aziz F, Morwood MJ (June 8, 2016). " Homo floresiensis-like fossils from the early Middle Pleistocene of Flores". Nature. 534 (7606): 245–248. Bibcode: 2016Natur.534..245V. doi: 10.1038/nature17999. PMID 27279221. S2CID 205249218. a b Sayers, Ken; Raghanti, Mary Ann; Lovejoy, C. Owen (October 2012). "Human Evolution and the Chimpanzee Referential Doctrine". Annual Review of Anthropology. 41: 119–138. doi: 10.1146/annurev-anthro-092611-145815. ISSN 0084-6570.

Particularly conspicuous is variation in superficial characteristics, such as Afro-textured hair, or the recent evolution of light skin and blond hair in some populations, which are attributed to differences in climate. Particularly strong selective pressures have resulted in high-altitude adaptation in humans, with different ones in different isolated populations. Studies of the genetic basis show that some developed very recently, with Tibetans evolving over 3,000 years to have high proportions of an allele of EPAS1 that is adaptive to high altitudes. Viegas, Jennifer (May 21, 2010). "Toothy Tree-Swinger May Be Earliest Human". Discovery News. Silver Spring, MD: Discovery Communications, LLC. Archived from the original on May 9, 2015 . Retrieved April 28, 2015.

Check-In

Earlier evidence from sequencing mitochondrial DNA suggested that no significant gene flow occurred between H. neanderthalensis and H. sapiens, and that the two were separate species that shared a common ancestor about 660,000 years ago. [81] [82] [83] However, a sequencing of the Neanderthal genome in 2010 indicated that Neanderthals did indeed interbreed with anatomically modern humans c. 45,000-80,000 years ago, around the time modern humans migrated out from Africa, but before they dispersed throughout Europe, Asia and elsewhere. [84] The genetic sequencing of a 40,000-year-old human skeleton from Romania showed that 11% of its genome was Neanderthal, implying the individual had a Neanderthal ancestor 4–6 generations previously, [85] in addition to a contribution from earlier interbreeding in the Middle East. Though this interbred Romanian population seems not to have been ancestral to modern humans, the finding indicates that interbreeding happened repeatedly. [86] A number of other changes have also characterized the evolution of humans, among them an increased reliance on vision rather than smell (highly reduced olfactory bulb); a longer juvenile developmental period and higher infant dependency; [178] a smaller gut and small, misaligned teeth; faster basal metabolism; [179] loss of body hair; [180] an increase in Bermúdez de Castro, José María; Arsuaga, Juan Luis; Carbonell, Eudald; etal. (May 30, 1997). "A Hominid from the Lower Pleistocene of Atapuerca, Spain: Possible Ancestor to Neandertals and Modern Humans". Science. 276 (5317): 1392–1395. doi: 10.1126/science.276.5317.1392. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 9162001. Species close to the last common ancestor of gorillas, chimpanzees and humans may be represented by Nakalipithecus fossils found in Kenya and Ouranopithecus found in Greece. Molecular evidence suggests that between 8 and 4million years ago, first the gorillas, and then the chimpanzees (genus Pan) split off from the line leading to the humans. Human DNA is approximately 98.4% identical to that of chimpanzees when comparing single nucleotide polymorphisms (see human evolutionary genetics). The fossil record, however, of gorillas and chimpanzees is limited; both poor preservation – rain forest soils tend to be acidic and dissolve bone – and sampling bias probably contribute to this problem.

McMains, Vanessa (December 5, 2011). "Found in Wyoming: New fossils of oldest American primate". The Gazette. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University. Archived from the original on January 16, 2019 . Retrieved April 27, 2015. Watts, Alex (May 20, 2009). "Scientists Unveil Missing Link In Evolution". Sky News Online. London: BSkyB. Archived from the original on July 28, 2011 . Retrieved April 27, 2015. Not to be confused with Pongidae, an obsolete family which grouped together orangutans, gorillas, and chimps to separate them from humans a b Mondal M, Bertranpetit J, Lao O (January 2019). "Approximate Bayesian computation with deep learning supports a third archaic introgression in Asia and Oceania". Nature Communications. 10 (1): 246. Bibcode: 2019NatCo..10..246M. doi: 10.1038/s41467-018-08089-7. PMC 6335398. PMID 30651539. The use of tools has been interpreted as a sign of intelligence, and it has been theorized that tool use may have stimulated certain aspects of human evolution, especially the continued expansion of the human brain. [185] Paleontology has yet to explain the expansion of this organ over millions of years despite being extremely demanding in terms of energy consumption. The brain of a modern human consumes, on average, about 13 watts (260 kilocalories per day), a fifth of the body's resting power consumption. [186] Increased tool use would allow hunting for energy-rich meat products, and would enable processing more energy-rich plant products. Researchers have suggested that early hominins were thus under evolutionary pressure to increase their capacity to create and use tools. [187]a b Leonard, William R.; Snodgrass, J. Josh; Robertson, Marcia L. (August 2007). "Effects of brain evolution on human nutrition and metabolism". Annual Review of Nutrition. 27: 311–327. doi: 10.1146/annurev.nutr.27.061406.093659. ISSN 0199-9885. PMID 17439362. S2CID 18869516. Whitehouse, David (June 9, 2003). "When humans faced extinction". BBC News. London: BBC. Archived from the original on September 4, 2010 . Retrieved January 5, 2007. During the next million years, a process of encephalization began and, by the arrival (about 1.9million years ago) of H.erectus in the fossil record, cranial capacity had doubled. H.erectus were the first of the hominins to emigrate from Africa, and, from 1.8to1.3 million years ago, this species spread through Africa, Asia, and Europe. One population of H.erectus, also sometimes classified as separate species H.ergaster, remained in Africa and evolved into H.sapiens. It is believed that H.erectus and H.ergaster were the first to use fire and complex tools. In Eurasia, H.erectus evolved into species such as H.antecessor, H.heidelbergensis and H.neanderthalensis. The earliest fossils of anatomically modern humans are from the Middle Paleolithic, about 300–200,000 years ago such as the Herto and Omo remains of Ethiopia, Jebel Irhoud remains of Morocco, and Florisbad remains of South Africa; later fossils from the Skhul Cave in Israel and Southern Europe begin around 90,000 years ago ( 0.09million years ago). Molecular evidence indicates that the lineage of gibbons diverged from the line of great apes some 18–12mya, and that of orangutans (subfamily Ponginae) [b] diverged from the other great apes at about 12million years; there are no fossils that clearly document the ancestry of gibbons, which may have originated in a so-far-unknown Southeast Asian hominoid population, but fossil proto-orangutans may be represented by Sivapithecus from India and Griphopithecus from Turkey, dated to around 10mya. [27]

Harvati, Katerina (January 2003). "The Neanderthal taxonomic position: models of intra- and inter-specific craniofacial variation". Journal of Human Evolution. 44 (1): 107–132. doi: 10.1016/S0047-2484(02)00208-7. ISSN 0047-2484. PMID 12604307. The hypothesis of pathological dwarfism, however, fails to explain additional anatomical features that are unlike those of modern humans (diseased or not) but much like those of ancient members of our genus. Aside from cranial features, these features include the form of bones in the wrist, forearm, shoulder, knees, and feet. Additionally, this hypothesis fails to explain the find of multiple examples of individuals with these same characteristics, indicating they were common to a large population, and not limited to one individual. [103] a b Martin, Robert D.; Maclarnon, Ann M.; Phillips, James L.; Dobyns, William B. (November 2006). "Flores hominid: New species or microcephalic dwarf?". The Anatomical Record Part A: Discoveries in Molecular, Cellular, and Evolutionary Biology. 288A (11): 1123–1145. doi: 10.1002/ar.a.20389. ISSN 1552-4884. PMID 17031806.

Weidenreich, Franz (July 1940). "Some Problems Dealing with Ancient Man". American Anthropologist. 42 (3): 375–383. doi: 10.1525/aa.1940.42.3.02a00010. ISSN 0002-7294. Sample, Ian (June 7, 2017). "Oldest Homo sapiens bones ever found shake foundations of the human story". The Guardian. Archived from the original on October 31, 2019 . Retrieved June 7, 2017.